The Shortage of Educationally Prepared Nursing Faculty

The Shortage of Educationally Prepared Nursing Faculty The nation is in need of a sufficient Registered nurse supply. The adequacy of this supply is critical in providing quality health care. An integral role of Registered nurses (RNs) and Advanced Practice Registered Nurses (APRNs) in primary care delivery helps to bring focus to the nation’s health care systems of patients’ and communities. The United States’ estimated shortage of nurses will grow to 260,000 by 2025, disturbing the nation’s health care delivery systems (American Nurses Association, 2011).The widespread of attention toward the growing need of nurses in the United States presents decreased awareness on the focus of nurse faculty shortages (National League of Nursing, 2010). Although active nursing numbers are growing, state, and national projections predict nursing shortages will increase as the population ages and requires more care, and practicing nurses, in large numbers, begin to retir e. Without coordinated statewide actions addressing the growing problem of faculty shortages, United States citizens will continue to face severe nurse shortages (National League of Nursing, 2010).Nursing faculty is intertwined with the current national shortage of nurses (American Nurses Association, 2011). Issues and Influencing Factors Some of the main issues affecting nursing shortages are the worsening of shortages of faculty in academic environments, damaging nursing professions infrastructure in edcation. Ninety-four percent of academic health centers believe faculty shortages arrive in at least one medical school, and 69% agree that these faculty shortages are an issue for institutions abroad.The majority have identified nurse faculty shortages as the highest in demand followed by allied health, pharmacy, and medicine (National League of Nursing, 2010). The limitation of student capacities is growing across the country in relation to nurse faculty shortages. Influencing fact ors contributing to these shortages involve aging faculty, budget constraints, the workload of full-time nurse educators in non-administrative positions teaching in either pre-licensure RN or graduate-level RN programs, competing salaries among employers in medical facilities versus universities, and recruitment (American Nurses Association, 2011).Recruitment of qualified new faculty is limited of master’s and doctoral programs with a focus on nursing education like the underrepresentation of minority groups, inadequate faculty compensation, and workplace issues like employee workload, clinical scheduling, student attitudes, and abilities, and cultural issues (American Nurses Association, 2011).According to the American Nurses Association (2011), â€Å"United States nursing schools turned away 75,587 qualified applicants from baccalaureate and graduate nursing programs in 2011 from insufficient faculty numbers, clinical sites, classroom space, clinical preceptors, and budget constraints† (Scope of the Nursing Faculty shortage). One other contributing factor is salary differences. According the Maryland Statewide Commission on the Crisis in nursing (2005), â€Å"The average salary for a practicing nurse with an advanced degree is $80,000, but a nursing faculty member makes about $50,000.The starting salary for a full-time faculty member at a Maryland school of nursing is approximately equal to that of a new graduate from an associate-degree or baccalaureate nursing program beginning as a full-time staff nurse. Given the additional education, master’s degree in nursing at minimum, and the experience required for a faculty position, this disparity in salary seems inequitable† (p. 2). Shortage Challenges, Strategies, and Consequences A challenge to decrease the growing shortage of nurses is to enhance opportunities for nursing faculty in addition to faculty increases in a timely manner.Countering strategies toward nurse faculty shortage s need to gain a focus on various educational methods within institutions like retaining senior faculty, and recruitment of new faculty in a timely manner in collaboration with anticipated retirements. National prospects suggest the initiation of a new motivation tool that launches new educational and research training with focuses on doctoral studies early in nursing careers with added support (Hinshaw, 2001). The consequence of a non-functioning solution to the problem will continue to contribute to nursing shortages placing the health care arena in jeopardy of poor health care delivery.The decrease of nurses has major consequences on preparing for emergencies, quality health care, the safety of patients’, access to health care services, and growth of the economy (The Center for Health and Health Care in Schools, 2006). More nurses will resume other avenues of employment, in addition to an increase of workload burnout. Recommendations Schools of Nursing, nursing school†™s educational institutions, and nursing professions need to evaluate old strategies and develop new and creative solutions for decreasing the shortage of nursing faculty (Hinshaw, 2001). A strong recommendation is retaining productive senior faculty.Academic administrators and faculty should evaluate new solutions for retaining senior faculty skills as they enter the retirement phase. Strategies suggested and developed should include methods based on the respect held for the expertise of senior faculty members on the needs of the nursing program as new junior faculty are recruited (Hinshaw, 2001). According to Hinshaw (2001), examples of recommendations include senior faculty to develop, and share new experiences, offer phased retirement plans, establish intellectual homes like Centers of Excellence based on research, and provide service components to retain senior faculty.Timing for replacement of senior faculty incorporates a specific strategy of preplanning. A widely used stra tegy used is to negotiate a loan from nursing program parent institutions. The loans are paid back as senior faculty retires. The major benefit of this loan program is it permits for the recruitment of new faculty as the experienced senior faculty is in place, providing several years for mentoring relationships between the two groups.Such a cadre of new and senior faculty can also build a strong climate for teaching mastery, research programs, and sponsorship into leadership positions in the profession because time is available for the new individuals to develop in a more comfortable, less stressed environment. At the same time, the expertise of the senior faculty is respected, and acknowledged. Another recommendation is to increase faculty salaries in comparison to clinical salaries. Currently there is more than a 20 thousand dollar difference between the two master’s of nursing professions, which also complicates recruitment of nursing faculty.According to American Nurses A ssociation (2011), â€Å"The average salary of a nurse practitioner, across settings and specialties, is $ $91,310. By contrast, in March 2011, master's prepared faculty earned an annual average salary of $72,028† (Factors contributing to the Faculty Shortage). Because the United States is economically challenged, increased salaries for higher educated nursing professionals may steer him or her toward faculty employment. Last, a resolution to gaining more nurses to consider faculty positions is to introduce academics early in his or her nursing career. Incorporating teaching throughout Associate Degree programs nd higher will appeal a more viable career option toward academic nursing. Economic Investments The nursing shortage detrimentally has damaged the health care system. Studies have revealed that nursing shortages contribute to non-desirable patient outcomes, medication errors, and an increase in mortality rates. Inadequate staffing issues were linked to increased patien t mortality (American Nurses Association, 2011). Researchers have identified that federal investments in nursing education is needed. Hospitals and other medication institutions need to support educating future nurses and increase nurse efficiency.There is a need for innovative pathways in education toward bachelor and graduate studies in nursing in addition to incentives for recruitment of nursing faculty. Families and surrounding communities need to recognize the effects of nursing care has on the quality and safety of health care and be prepared to assist with funds to support the need for higher education. The public should become involved with an understanding that united is a stand, and divided the country shall fall in addition to taking a stand to demand better care of growing communities with longer lifespans.Conclusion Shortages of nursing faculty, placements in clinical settings, and nursing program classrooms report each year in every state in the congressional district report denying qualified candidates to nursing schools (National League of Nursing, 2010). Rising factors affecting the nursing shortage is wages. Wages for nurses compared to past wages have grown dramatically but still lag behind other health care professionals with equal education. Although many strategies have been initiated, there is no one strategy, or solution to the ongoing issue of a need for roughly 800,000 nurses needed by 2020 (American Nurses Association, 2011).Until communities, governments, hospitals, and other medical institutions, in addition to nursing programs take a united stand in promoting the future of quality health care, the United States will continue to experience a shortage in nursing. The key to producing qualified nurses is to employ more qualified faculty. A solution to this promotion should start within early nursing programs with teaching as a focus. This will help future nurses to admire the importance of helping patients in addition to helping new nurses grow in the nursing practice. References American Nurses Association. (2011). Nurse Faculty Shortages.Retrieved October 07, 2012, from American Nurses Association: http://www. aacn. nche. edu/media-relations/fact-sheets/nursing-faculty-shortage Hinshaw, A. (2001, January 31). A Continuing Challenge: The Shortage of Educationally Prepared Nursing Faculty. Retrieved October 07, 2012, from The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing 6(1). Manuscript 3. Available: http://www. nursingworld. org/MainMenuCategories/ThePracticeofProfessionalNursing/workforce/NursingShortage/Resources/ShortageofEducationalFaculty. html Maryland Statewide Commission on the Crisis in Nursing. (2005, September 02). Nursing Faculty Shortage .Retrieved October 07, 2012, from Maryland Board of Nursing: http://www. mbon. org/commission/nsg_faculty_shortage. pdf National League of Nursing. (2010, February). 2010 NLN Nurse Educator Shortage Fact Sheet. Retrieved October 07, 2012, from National League of Nursing: h ttp://www. nln. org/governmentaffairs/pdf/nursefacultyshortage. pdf The Center for Health and Health Care in Schools. (2006, September). Thoughts on a Nursing Shortage. Retrieved October 08, 2012, from The Center for Health and Health Care in Schools: http://www. healthinschools. org/News-Room/EJournals/Volume-7/Number-9/Thoughts-on-a-Nursing-Shortage. aspx

The Socio Economic Impact Of Credit Environmental Sciences Essay

Low productiveness coupled with corruptness in the executing of authorities policies and the trouble by aquaculture fish husbandmans to entree recognition which is an of import ingredient for development, increased productiveness and improved supports necessitates this survey. The survey will be conducted to measure the Socio-Economic Impact of Credit on Aquaculture Fish Farmers in Ogun State, Nigeria. This is with the position to measure the consequence of the fish husbandmans ‘ socio-economic features and institutional factors that could impact fish production from aquaculture in the survey country. Primary informations will be generated through the disposal of semi-structured questionnaires on indiscriminately selected aquaculture fish husbandmans who benefitted from recognition and those who did non ; such that they are equally spread over the 20 ( 20 ) Local Government Areas of Ogun State, Nigeria. The husbandmans will be stratified into donees of recognition ( 40 ) and non-beneficiaries of recognition ( 60 ) , sampled on the footing of three ( 3 ) aquaculture fish husbandmans who benefitted from recognition and three ( 3 ) aquaculture fish husbandmans who did non profit from recognition per Local Government Area ( LGA ) . The primary informations generated will be scored and the per centums of the parametric quantities will be calculated suitably and presented in frequence tabular arraies. The chief statistical tools that will be employed are average, per centum, whole norm and frequence counts. Descriptive statistical method and illative statistics will be employed to discourse consequences. The consequences would be used to proffer recommendations for betterment, based on findings. Introduction. The general aim of this survey is to find the consequence of the fish husbandman ‘s socio-economic features and institutional factors that could impact fish production from aquaculture in the survey country Figs. 1, 2 and 3 ) . The major purposes of the survey are as follows: I. Measure the socio-economic features of fish husbandmans who benefitted and those who did non profit from recognition. two Evaluate the impact of recognition usage on the productiveness of aquaculture in the survey country. three. Measure the degree of production of fish husbandmans who benefitted from and those who did non profit from recognition. four. Identify the jobs and/or factors that militate against the coveted impact of recognition on fish husbandmans in Ogun State, Nigeria. v. Identify the beginning ( s ) of recognition and form of expense to the fish husbandmans. six. Proffer recommendations for betterment, based on findings. In order to accomplish the above enunciated major purposes of the survey, the research inquiries for this survey are therefore formulated as follows: I. â€Å" Do aquaculture angle husbandmans with entree to recognition have a better socio-economic life? † two. â€Å" Does entree to recognition impact on the productiveness of aquaculture fish agriculture? † three. â€Å" How does the beginning and form of recognition disbursement impact on the overall socio-economic life of aquaculture fish husbandmans? † In Nigeria, agricultural funding has long been considered a tough nut to cleft. Even when available, entree to recognition is hard for husbandmans. However, there has been renewed involvement by the Federal Government in get the better ofing the obstructions that hinder entree to agricultural obstructions, as finance is an of import ingredient for development, as it allows agricultural communities to go successful in making supports and better nutrient security. Despite assorted attempts by the Nigerian authorities at doing good agricultural policies ; through strategies, programmes and establishments, with agricultural recognition strategies, which has been working for many old ages, the public presentation of the sector has non fared better than it was before independency. This has been diversely blamed on the authorities ‘s inability to supply equal budgetary allotment and funding, coupled with corruptness in the executing of the policies ( Eze, C. et Al. 2010 ) . It is hence pertinent to determine the impact of recognition strategies on the donees, and in peculiar the piscaries sector. It is against this background that this survey is designed to measure the socio-economic impact of recognition on aquaculture fish husbandmans in Ogun State, Nigeria.Relation to Previous Research.Though modern aquaculture in Nigeria is of recent pattern, artisanal fishermen and angling communities have for coevalss practiced traditional methods of fish nurturing in tidal pools and inundation fields ( Dada 2007, 1975 ) . FAO, 2003, reported that Nigeria contributed 6.4 % to agricultural production in Africa in twelvemonth 2000, with domestic fish production from aquaculture increasing from 4.5 % in 1999 to 5.5 % in 2000 ( Table 2 ) . Although there is considerable possible for aquaculture in Nigeria, the present part to domestic fish production from this sector is instead low. Out of the estimated one-year production of 467,098 dozenss in 2000, less than 10 % ca me from aquaculture ( Federal Department of Fisheries, 2003 ) . In malice of the potency of aquaculture, there are tonss of jobs militating against its development. Prominent among these are hapless choice fish seed and provender, hapless substructure, unequal proficient know-how and recognition ( Olaoye et al. , 2011 ) . Credit which is of great importance to the nutriment of fish agriculture and agricultural development in Nigeria is nevertheless missing in the strategy of things ( Onwuka, 2006 ) . Even when available, entree to recognition is hard for husbandmans in the rural countries despite the fact that it is an indispensable input in agricultural production ( Olaoye, 2010 ) . This could be attributed to miss of information and indirect securities among husbandmans and administrative bureaucratic bottle cervixs. Out of despair to transform the state ‘s agricultural sector, the Federal Government of Nigeria has since the early 1970s, embarked on significant capital investing programmes in agribusiness, based on the belief that recognition is the â€Å" all in all † productive input required by husbandmans to transform their productive capacity ( Olowa et al. , 2011 ) . In position of the failed yesteryear recognition strategies and acknowledgment of the of import function recognition dramas in agricultural development and sustainability, prompted the Federal Government of Nigeria to set up recognition strategies such as ; the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme ( ACGS ) and Agricultural Credit Support Scheme ( ACSS ) , amongst others ; to guarantee husbandman ‘s entree to recognition. The constitution of these new recognition strategies notwithstanding, entree to recognition by husbandmans has non well improved. Based on the 2006 Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire Surve y, it is estimated that merely 18 % of farm families ( chiefly small-scale husbandmans ) have entree to fiscal services ( Akramov, 2009 ) . It is frequently really hard to quantitatively show the impact of recognition on small-scale husbandmans, because it is hard to capture and analyze all of its benefits ( Accion International, 2010 ) . However, Okojie et Al. ( 2010 ) in an interview of freelance workers in Edo State, Nigeria found that micro-credit had a positive impact on the concern and household life of rural inhabitants that had entree to NGO-MFIs. Feijo ( 2001 ) besides found that there was a positive impact on the lives of husbandmans who benefited from the recognition installations of the Program to Support Family agriculture ( PRONAF ) in Brazil, based on the measuring of productiveness growing of their chief harvests. In the same vena, Oyeyinka et Al. ( 2009 ) , analyzing the impact of donees and non-beneficiaries of the NACRDB smallholder loan strategy in Oyo State, Nigeria, found that the output, income, and entree to improved farm inputs of donees were higher compared to that of non-beneficiaries. Other impacts include betterments in easing economic minutess, pull offing daily resources, accessing services that improve quality of life, protecting against economic exposure, doing productiveness sweetenings and leveraging assets. Finally, participants in the FGD posited that timely recognition proviso facilitates the timely acquisition of farm inputs, which help husbandmans better their support. Traditional aquaculture system and gaining control piscaries have socio-economic impacts on angling communities in Nigeria. Harmonizing to Federal Department of Fisheries ( 2000 ) , traditional aquaculture systems and gaining control piscaries provide employment for over 1 million people in Nigeria. These systems account for 70 – 90 % of the one-year income of angling communities in Nigeria ( DFID-FAO, 2002 ) . The writers nevertheless pointed out that the income is instead low and can barely prolong them and their households. Gwomna ( 2006 ) submitted that angling communities in Nigeria are socially disadvantaged and lack comfortss like lodging, good imbibing H2O, healthful installations and instruction, therefore compromising their nutritionary security. He besides posited that the socio-economic state of affairss of these angling communities therefore have an impact on the quality of their support. In this survey, I am adding a new dimension of looking at the socio-economic impact of recognition on aquaculture fish husbandmans in Ogun State, Nigeria from the point of position of multi-credit lines instead a individual recognition installation. This is with the position of highlighting, if any, the interplay of multi-credit lines on the demographics of adoption and its attendant effects on the aquaculture fish husbandmans.Proposed Methods.A multi-stage and simple Random Sampling ( SRS ) technique will be used to bring forth primary informations from the field, utilizing sets of structured and pre-tested questionnaires. Aim trying technique will be used to choose three ( 3 ) aquaculture fish husbandmans in each of the 20 ( 20 ) Local Government Areas ( LGAS ) of Ogun State, Nigeria who benefitted from a recognition or loan strategy, while another three ( 3 ) aquaculture fish husbandmans who did non profit from any recognition or loan strategy would be sampled in each of the 20 ( 20 ) Local Government Areas ( LGAs ) . A sum of One hundred and 20 ( 120 ) aquaculture fish husbandmans will be sampled for the survey, with accent on husbandmans that keep reasonably good and accurate records of their operations. The husbandmans will be divided into two ( 2 ) groups, viz. ; husbandmans that had entree to recognition or loan ( whether ball or informal beginnings ) for aquaculture fish agriculture and the 2nd group, husbandmans who did non entree any signifier of recognition or loan. Sets of questionnaire would be administered on the sampled aquaculture fish husbandmans between the 1st of November 2012 and 16th December 2012. Effort will be made to guarantee equal spread and representation of each Local Government Area. The primary informations would be generated on the socio-economic features of the aquaculture fish husbandmans, such as ; age, pool size ( s ) , provenders, gender, extension services, rank of Fishermen Co-operative Societies, fish inputs, quality of fish gimmick and income, educational background, recognition beginning ( s ) and form of expense, experience and family size of the husbandman, and jobs restraining aquaculture fish agriculture in Ogun State, Nigeria, etc. , utilizing structured questionnaires. The secondary informations would be extracted from archived paperss of recognition facilitators, oversing authorities bureaus and relevant published research work and documents. The information would include, the entire one-year fish production and entire aquaculture fish production in Ogun State and Nigeria for the last five old ages ; list of aquaculture fish husbandmans in Ogun State, and list of the different types of aquaculture fish pools, their size and locations ; and relevant literature on aquaculture fish production in Ogun State in peculiar and Nigeria in general. Besides, informations on the sum of loans, figure of loan donees, loan public presentation and the demographics of adoption, etc. The administrations from whom these informations would be extracted from their archives, include ; Ogun State Agricultural Development Project, Ogun State Agricultural Management and Credit Scheme ( OSAMCA ) , Nigeria Agricultural Credit and Rural Development Bank ( NACRDB ) , Ogun Sta te Ministry of Agriculture, Federal Department of Fisheries ( FDF ) , University of Agriculture, Abeokuta and any other relevant bureaus and establishments. The primary informations generated from the questionnaire will be scored, and the per centums of the parametric quantities will be calculated suitably and presented in frequence tabular arraies. The chief statistical tools that will be employed are average, per centums, and whole norm and frequence counts. Descriptive statistical methods and illative statistics will be used to discourse the information. The descriptive analysis will be used to foreground the nature and frequence of informations and jobs encountered by the aquaculture fish husbandmans in the province. To buttress the choice of the interview method for informations coevals for the survey, Hirsjarvi et Al. ( 2009 ) and Hirsjarvi ( 2008 ) opined that the interview method is a good method of informations coevals, as it allows for the enlargement of information, clarify desired replies, and acquire exemplifying illustrations. Hirsjarvi and Hume ( 2008 ) define interview as a tool, proposing that the interviewers ‘ talk is to intercede the image of respondents ideas, sentiments, experiences, and feelings. A semi-structured interview type will be chosen for this survey as it is the most suited, sing the nature of the topic. Contemplations. This survey is of great importance and involvement to me because it forms portion of what I intend to make in the hereafter and besides its ability to add to the bing organic structure of cognition. It is anticipated that the survey would besides assist broaden my cognition on aquaculture fish agriculture. The survey has the ability to bring forth critical and utile information that could help policy preparation. Though the survey can be clip devouring, dashing and frustrating, it is every bit rewarding. In transporting out a survey of this nature, there are normally built-in jobs that would necessitate to be addressed in order to carry on a qualitative research that can adequately lend to the bing organic structure of cognition. Some of the awaited jobs and intended solution would be highlighted. The most awaited challenge is that of the moralss of the respondents, peculiarly in a underdeveloped society like Nigeria, with a reasonably low literacy degree and official corruptness ; makes people leery of each other and apathy towards the behavior of study. This ethical consideration demand to be considered as many of the respondents may be loath to take portion in the survey or may non be really willing to unwrap critical and personal information to an unknown beginning. This is attributable to the uncertainness of what the divulged information will be used for, who might come in contact with such information and how the information would be used. In position of the high prevalence of crisp corrupt patterns in the society and public establishments, entree to secondary informations from public and private establishments could be hard, and if provided, they may non be a true contemplation of what obtains on land. To work out this job therefore, I intend to guarantee all those that would necessitate to supply information for the survey of their confidentiality and namelessness, while besides acquiring a missive of debut from the University. I besides intend to acquire the consent of respondents before interview and guaranting that they are adequately educated on the intent of the survey and that the information provided will be used strictly for the exclusive intent of survey. The usage of multi-stage and simple random sample ( SRS ) technique to bring forth primary informations utilizing sets of structured and semi-structured inquiries comes with its ain attendant restrictions, such as the debut of the research workers ‘ prejudice in the class of interview. The prejudices of a research worker on a subject tend to on occasion play itself out on the manner the interview inquiries for the survey are structured. I hence would guarantee that I am as indifferent and open-minded as possible. This is besides pertinent in position of the fact that the survey could assist clarify some salient issues which could assist construct on my cognition of aquaculture fish agriculture. Finally, to accomplish a research work of high quality, I would use myself to the survey with much diligence, difficult work, committedness and unfastened head.Decision.In reasoning this survey, inferals from the analysis of the information generated will be used to proffer recommendations for the betterment of the socio-economic features of the aquaculture fish husbandmans and the ability of the husbandmans to entree recognition, its form of expense and degree of public presentation. On the whole, all issues that come up from the survey as respects the socio-economic features of the aquaculture fish husbandmans and their entree to recognition will be discussed and recommendations proffered for their betterment. The survey will be concluded by associating the subject with all the findings of the survey vis-a-vis the aims of the survey.Timetable.A. 1st November 2012 to 16th December 2012 Polish of questionnaire and disposal. Primary informations assemblage through questionnaire disposal. Expansion of Review of Relevant Literature and Secondary Data Gathering. Draft write-up of Chapter 1. B. 17th December 2012 to 13th January 2013. Extraction and bite of information ( information ) from questionnaire. Analysis of collated information ( information ) . Presentation of analyzed information ( information ) Draft write-up of chapter 2. C. 14th January 2013 to 28th March 2013. Draft write-up of thesis. Submission of bill of exchange transcript of thesis. Submission of concluding transcript of thesis. Mentions. Accion International. n.d. Measuring the impact of microfinance: Our Perspective. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.accion.org/Document.Doc? id=794. Accessed July 30, 2010. Akinbile, L.A. ( 2007 ) . Standardization of socio-economic Status ( SES ) graduated table for farm households in South West Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences, 14 ( 3 ) : 221-227. Akramov, K.T ( 2009 ) . Decentralization, agricultural services and determiners of input usage in Nigeria. Discussion Paper 941, Washington, D.C: International Food Policy Research Institute. Dada, B.F. ( 2007 ) . Fisheries Development in Nigeria. The challenges and chances of accessing fund. The president ‘s reference delivered by Otunba Bamidele Dada ( OON ) at the public talk organised by the Fisheries Society of Nigeria ( FISON ) in Lagos, Nigeria. Dada, B.F. ( 1975 ) . Present Status and Prospects for Aquaculture in Nigeria. Symposium on Aquaculture in Africa. CIFA/T4, Rome: FAO. DFID-FAO ( 2002 ) . Contribution of Fisheries Research to the Improvement of Livelihoods in West African Fisheries Communities: Case Study of Nigeria. Rome: DFID-FAO. Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sflp.org/eng/fr/003/doc/rpniga2.doc. Accessed 19th March 2005. Eze, C. , Lemchi, J.J. , Ugochukwu, A.I. , Eze, V.C. , Awulonu, C.A.O. , and Okon, A.X. ( 2010 ) . Agricultural Financing Policies and rural Development in Nigeria. The 84th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society, Edinburgh. 29th to 31st March 2010. Food and Agricultural Organisation ( FAO ) ( 2003 ) . Review of the State of World Aquaculture. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 886, Rev.2. Rome: FAO. Federal Department of Fisheries ( FDF ) ( 2003 ) . Domestic Fish production by sectors ( 1991-2000 ) . Lagos, Nigeria: Federal Department of Fisheries. Gwomna, A. ( 2006 ) . The Role of Traditional Aquaculture Systems and Fish in Food Security and Livelihoods of Fishing Communities in two States in Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis Submitted at The Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland. October 2006. Okojie, C. ; Monye-Emina, A ; Eghofona, K ; Osaghae, G ; and Ehiakhamen, J.O ( 2010 ) . Institutional environment and entree to microfinance by freelance adult females in the rural countries of Edo State.NSSP Brief No. 14. Washington, D.C: International Food Policy Research Institute. Shimang, G.N. ( 1999 ) . Status Review of Aquaculture Development in Nigeria ( 1940-1998 ) , Abuja, Nigeria. Federal Department of Fisheries.

Active and Passive Indexing

The first index fund began in 1971, with $6 million funded by Samsonite, the luggage-maker. Since then, there have been many arguments of whether an active index fund or a passive index fund offers better long-term results for investors. Index funds are already the fastest growing sector of the mutual fund business. From 1986 to 1996, the amount of money invested in index funds grew from $556 million to $65 Billion. And if anything, individual investors have been slow to embrace passive management. Institutional investors invest a far larger percentage of their assets passively. Many individual investors are simply uneducated and unaware of the arguments and experimental evidence supporting passive management. Institutional investors and academics have known for years (many for decades) that passive investing is extremely difficult to beat and that the majority of active investors will fail in their attempt to outperform the market. Active indexers assert they can outperform the marketplace. Passive (index) portfolios state they can mirror the performance of the indices. Both have their good times and their bad times. Active indexers raise cash in times of increased risk and instability while passive indexers remain fully invested. This can be quite painful during times of large declines in the market. Passive portfolios mirror the gains of the indices during roaring bull markets and eventually outperform the majority of active money managers who must remain diversified and who sometimes take on additional risks in an attempt to produce the performance and safety that they have promised their clients. The evidence has piled up during today's bull market that the average dollar managed by active managers does not keep up with the market index. Finally, indexing is a way to avoid being blind-sided in certain areas of the marketplace. Active management themes can easily find themselves on the wrong side of an investment. There is a perception among investors that a strategy designed to match stock market returns is less risky than a comparable actively managed portfolio. Since the index approach invests in a manner that is most friendly with the market's natural liquidity, it produces the least disturbance. The passive investor also has diversified his risk. Specific negative things can happen to individual companies or groups. As a passive investor, one is not exposed to any of these things. However, it does not mean you have a risk-free investment. The downside to passive index investors is that they â€Å"fuel the fire† of a market that appreciates well beyond its true value. Index mutual funds must put new money to work†¦ they can not hold cash†¦ and their investors all buy the exact same stocks. When stocks go down, index funds, being fully invested, will receive the ultimate effect of the decline. Combined with this loss is the fact that they will also have to sell shares to cover shareholder redemptions. These funds will get hit harder than many active portfolios with a cash cushion. Most active managers of investment portfolios raise cash as they perceive higher valuations, excessive instability, and extreme risks, therefore; reducing the display to loss during declining markets. Another downside to passive indexing is the impact they have on market instability. This gives the patient active money manager a welcome opportunity to take advantage of stock selection at very attractive prices and, to some extent, time the market in making their decisions of when to buy and when to sell. Index investing is a tricky business that can roil markets. Actively indexed funds have gone upward over the last decade. This has occurred despite the fact that investors have poured huge amounts of money into active funds over this period. The costs of investing in index funds have trended downward as they have become more popular with investors. The costs of active index funds just might decrease in the future, thereby narrowing the cost gap with passive index funds. But all evidence to date has shown just the opposite trend – the costs of active funds continue to go up and the costs of index funds continue to go down. Actively indexed funds typically generate relatively large amounts of taxes while passive index funds generate relatively small amounts. Some of the resulting gap in performance caused by taxes would seemingly be narrowed if the federal government were to lower tax rates. Congress did this at the end of July 1997 when it reduced the maximum long term capital gains tax rate from 28% on investments held more than one year to 20% on investments held 18 months or longer. The tax bill provides that in the year 2001 this rate will be reduced to 18% for investments held five years or longer. Finally, active money managers serve the specific needs of their clients. They manage portfolios based exactly on the investor's objectives and tolerance for risk. They make decisions based on a stated time frame and they are capable of changing the goals and direction of a portfolio on a moment's notice. They are the investor's personal link to the market and the protector of their capital. The value of these services is immeasurable to most investors. One thing that really does not influence the investor as much as it should is the lack of appreciation with respect to the tax consequences of passive index management. The capital gains, created during the year by a fully active index manager, is reported to the IRS, and the investor ends up being taxed. For a taxed investor, the buy-and-hold is a winning strategy. Turnover is the enemy of the investor who pays taxes. Conversely, most investors would be more than happy to pay taxes on the returns produced by active money managers during periods of declining markets. Not many investors prefer losses to earning some gains and interest, even with the tax man waiting. The effect of so many investors buying index funds is that they tend to guard the money market. An investor could actually, in a cost-effective manner, buy and sell the market. The asset funding of active managers, combined with the efficiency of the passive manager, allows one to implement strategies that provide an optimal mix of securities to match a particular scenario, objective, or risk aversion. From time to time, it is possible that the major assets can get out of balance. Investors can run up prices where the lawfulness market is overvalued. When this reaches a untrustworthy level, more self-corrective measures are needed. This is where the expertise of the active manager becomes useful. As an investor, you are always trading off what Jeremy Bentham, the British economist, referred to as the â€Å"pain-pleasure calculus. † Good returns produce pleasure. Bad returns produce pain. An active money manager is always balancing off the pleasure vs. e potential pain. The active manager tends to determine what that balance is and if it finds that the market is deployed otherwise, it works in balancing the portfolio. Tactical asset funding combined with a passively managed portfolio has been called the â€Å"holy grail† of investing by Jonathan Burton, of Dow Jones' Asset Management magazine. During declining markets, index funds take the full force of the market's loss. Managers of these funds are forced to sell stocks in order to meet the demand for redemptions as their investors got out of the market. During markets of very little movement, investors quickly drain of insufficient or no returns on their investment. Finally, a philosophy of capital preservation causes the active manager to raise cash, providing a cushion for portfolios during times of extreme risk. Active or passive? Both have their advantages and their risks, but the two are found to be the best long-term plans for both performance and safety. Index (passive) funds are likely to beat active funds, yet the Morningstar data show that 92% of all the money is U. S. stock funds is in active funds.

Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Argument - Essay Example For example, CI requires that a rational individual is moral if the end of their actions is to promote the good of all. Therefore, CI is the best theory in precisely articulating human reasoning and decision making, and relating these to free human will compared to other decision theories. Moral actions are indicative of rationality, with an immoral action indicating irrationality in an individual. A moral action has to be universal in that it has to stand true in any event anywhere. For example, stealing is immoral; it causes pain to the owner while it may result to pleasure in the one stealing. Causing pain is immoral as it leads to suffering, implying that such an act when committed by a rational being would be immoral. Stealing is thus a crime universally as it violates CI theory, which is a universal law of morals. Being a universal law, Kantian CI becomes the best theory that explains why individuals have to decide in a certain way. For example, considering the relational Diale cts theory in a similar case, the theory requires us to consider issues around us, which help people to construct meaning in any relation. Thus the theory is based on specific circumstances as it requires one to consider cultural and social rational systems. This implies the theory applies to multicultural diversity (Turner, 2004). Thus stealing according to this theory may be justified in some cases as it directs people to construct certain meanings in a specific setting of relationships. On the other hand, the how we decide theory is largely based on observable behavior from outside as one cannot access the mind of the individual. For example, asking why does a an individual steal would lead to detailed examinations of their behaviors and history in finding elements that may explain such behaviors in deciding if the individual is actually on the wrong. Such an observation may sometimes be inaccurate and may lead to a wrong conclusion. Therefore, the advantage of CI theory is that it is based on a universal law and is not relative as the other two theories, which depend on specific circumstances. The issue of personal freedom in making a decision is of much importance, and precisely bestows the responsibility of an action on the particular individual. As Kant’s CI theory explains, freedom is an important element in reasoning, whose function cannot be ignored. Thus, without assuming freedom, an individual cannot act (McCormick, 2005). In other words, an individual is not a robot or causal agent that only serves to implement orders. Thinking in such direction would deny humanity its own existence and purpose. Freedom is thus a central focus in decision making and reasoning; an individual is at will to decide in any direction. In this theory, Kant places the consequence of each action on the specific individual, and not on a system of events that may be explained to be the causal agents behind such an action. However, considering the how we decide theory, the major limitation is the assumption that humans are not rational. Thus, the theory traces human action not from the specific individual, but from a system of factors and history that plays to shape and define human actions. This would relegate humanity to being a causal agent that is not responsible for

George Westinghouse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

George Westinghouse - Essay Example Although his influence on the modern civilization may be unnoticed by many the achievements and inventions associated with Westinghouse's name in some or other way surround us every day. The influence of George Westinghouse was decisive in improving the safety of the US railroad system, stimulation of the transportation industry growth, development of the modern electric distribution system and many other landmark inventions (Jonnes, 2003). The son of a machine shop owner, Westinghouse was the eighth of ten children. His father's machine shop manufactured a variety of industrial and agricultural machinery while Westinghouse Sr. himself was a talented inventor who registered at least seven patents. In 1860, at the age of fourteen Westinghouse Jr. started to work for his father at 50 cents an hour and got the first insights into machinery and metalworking. The Civil War interrupted the early start of his career as an inventor: George Westinghouse joined the Union army at the 15 and although his father forced him back in 1863 George finally received the consent of Westinghouse Sr. to be enlisted in the infantry. After several months Westinghouse Jr. became an engineer in the Union Navy (Dietrich, 2006). The Civil War was over when Westinghouse was only 19 and already at that age he created and patented his first invention, the rotary steam engine (Jones 2003a). After spending three months at tiny Union College, Westinghouse finished his formal education, returned to the machinery of his father's shop, and immediately produced a series of important inventions and engineering innovations. Thus, at age of twenty one Westinghouse invented the famous 'car replacer', a mechanical device to rerail derailed cars back onto the tracks and a mechanical 'frog' to switch trains onto of two tracks (ASME 1937). Although practical success of both these inventions Westinghouse did not gain much in terms of commercial success: his patent protection was not strong enough to prevent the railroads that adopted the replacer and frog from sidestepping his rights. However, Westinghouse considered the bitter experience and did not make the same mistake in the future. Prior to turning his attention to the new and exceptionally promising fields of activity Westinghouse had already become widely known as a successful mechanical engineer, inventor and entrepreneur. The number of patents issued to him during only five years between 1869 and 1873 exceeded 20, and one of them was for one of the most essential inventions of that epoch, namely the air brake (Jonnes 2003). During the next decade, the air brake gained overwhelming acceptance among the railroads but Westinghouse became interested in finding and exploiting natural gas. Although that part of Westinghouse's life is scarcely known and relatively insignificant considering his achievement in mechanical engineering and electricity, during only two years from 1884 to 1885 he applied for 28 patents. His gas inventions included the

(CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) Assignment

(CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) - Assignment Example CATCH support appropriate decision-making regarding resource allocation, health care policy development, and strategy implementation leading to the further research of population heath issues (Staggers and Nelson, 2014). The CDC and the WHO have a common goal of promoting a healthy public and sharing data about chronic diseases and preventing them. The CDC is a central agency that conducts and support health promotion, prevention, and preparedness in America with the aim of improving overall public health. WHO strategically bases to check on the health of its 194 member states globally. Both CDC and WHO uses EHR Electronic health records in data processing for easy manipulation and storage of health data records. The CDC and WHO, recognize the importance of health IT therefore investing in the Public health information networks (PHIN) for perfect sharing of public health information (Jenkins, 2011). Employees can share information about chronic diseases including Ebola, through social media channels. The difference is that, the CDC deals with local data within the US while the WHO is an international body with CDC version to maintain public heath globally including 194 countries. WHO concentrates on annual recording of health-related issues for its 194 Member States. It focuses on the progress designed towards achieving the health-related Millennium development to the member states. WHO deals with the global development goals (MDGs) and related targets checking on the universal health coverage and civil registration coverage. The CDC is an American based center for disease control monitoring and preventing chronic disease and maintaining sound health within America states.CDC helps the American public health with statistics including diseases, pregnancies, births, and mortality. The standard research methods are literature searches, talking with people, focus groups, Personal

Horror Film Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Horror Film - Movie Review Example However, sometimes a filmmaker might choose to reveal these gratuitous aspects of their craft less directly, or even just imply them. As the genre of horror films grew more sophisticated in the mid portion of the 20th century, filmmakers such as Georges Franju began making important decisions about which horrific scenes to display and which so leave up to the audience's imagination. In his 1959 classic Eyes without a Face, Franju deliberately paces the film to heighten the anticipation of the truly graphic scenes. In this case, it is all about the audience's expectations. Meanwhile, the themes of the film were not simply bodily excess, but the full extensions of psychological control in its characters. Accordingly, the horror stems from the excessive control of a father over his daughter, his possible lover and the world around him. This level of control is reflected in the mask that the girl is forced to wear and the environment in which she is forced to live - only the latter of wh ich is the audience privy do early in the film. Ultimately, Eyes without a Face is an example of a horror film that makes use of invisible horror, in order to heighten the audience's awareness of what it may be about to see, and allow its imagination to run wild. Essentially, the film is driven forward by the moral choices of Dr. ... Genessier's daughter, Christiane, a most of all. Early in the film Louise briefly questions the actions of her employer - who, as the film implies, may also be her lover or even her husband, which could even make her Christiane's mother. Before the audience is even fully privy to the actions that the pair of murderers is taking, Louise states that she cannot go on, and Mr. Genessier promptly slaps her, which brings her back to her senses. This brief scene illustrates one of the main themes that will run throughout Eyes without a Face, which is the control of Mr. Genessier over everything in his life. The issue of control is significant because it highlights one of the ethical messages that Franju attempts to convey through the film. Since this is a horror film, it is not enough to merely illustrate how the control of one man over the lives of two women can be detrimental to everyone; instead, the audience must be brought face-to-face with the most extreme or even gruesome consequences of such a form of control. Genessier specifically wants to control the appearance of his daughter and, accordingly, the course of her life. The audience is left to infer that he believes that his daughter will have a better life if she is beautiful once again. However, this is never directly identified by Christiane as a personal goal belonging to her. This is clearly her father's goal. It is suggested that Mr. Genessier holds himself responsible for the injury to his daughter; but rather than attempting to correct the possible flaws in himself that led to her disfigurement, he acts to take more fir m command of her life, as well as the lives of other women in Paris. Women are abducted, mutilated and murdered with zero regard for their

Individual Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Individual Project - Essay Example Economic appraisal is noted to act on the physical attractiveness. The role of physical attractiveness in economics requires appraisal. There is a vast literature on physical attraction and its importance in a number of areas: game theory (Solnick and Schweitzer 1999), earnings (Hamermesh and Biddle 1994), election results (Rosar, Klein and Beckers 2008). The retail car price negotiations (Ayres, 1991), teaching evaluations (Lawson and Stephenson 2005), and election results (Rosar, Klein and Beckers 2008) to name just a few. Mankiw (2007) has highlights the role of height to suggest, perhaps tongue in cheek, taxation on height. He suggests a similar recommendation regarding physical attractiveness. (Pokrywka, Cabric and Krakowiak 2006; Grundl, EisenmannKlein, and Prantl 2009; Swami, Furnham and Joshi 2008; Swami, Einon, and Furnham 2007) Conventional wisdom suggests feminists in general identify with the political left. Likewise, Deirdre McCloskey (2000) argues that to the liberation of women, feminist economists offer less support to the free markets than typical non-feminist economists. Female professors are far more likely to identify with the Democratic Party than male economists as Cardiff and Klein (2005) support; see Table 1.2. In part, this results to a view that the underlying assumptions of economic theory are gender biased, with differences evident in Strober (1994) and Nelson (1995). Beauty pageants chronically have been sites of controversy and resistance. For example, during its first decade, the Miss America contest was attacked by religious groups and women’s clubs as vulgar, indecent, and degrading (Cohen et al. 1996). In response, in order to create an aura of respectability for the pageant, organizers subjected contestants to constant monitoring and surveillance. Due to a state of relentless policing of femininity and behavior (Banet-Weiser 1999: 39), participants

Action to Transform Health Care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Action to Transform Health Care - Assignment Example Additionally, educational background along with lower income level of this segment of Montreal population often compels the indigenous groups to avail equal health care services. In this regard, a series of suggestive actions have been formulated that can increase the health care efficiency of the nursing institutions to protect health and wellbeing of the aboriginal members in the community. In this regard, changing and maintaining adequate compliance with the participation and accession of health care services can improve their process of protecting the wellness of the aboriginal groups. Furthermore, making continuous promotion of the health care facilities designed for the aboriginal groups along with improving the way of rehabilitation programs can also improve the current nursing trend in Montreal for the indigenous groups. In relation to the recent health care sector in Canada, a major development can be witnessed in terms of maintaining status and legitimacy in nursing of the community members. However, the health care sector of the nation is often alleged in terms of overlooking of conducting appropriate health and social care activities for the members especially the urban aboriginal groups. The aboriginal groups in the nations are subjected to face major disparities in terms of availing appropriate care, awareness and wellness programs to improve their health and wellbeing within the communities. Keeping with the changing notion in nursing practices, the primary objective of this research study is to bring a major understanding of the current nursing practice in Montreal Quebec, Canada. In this regard, the discussion of the report critically analyses discourses within the community regarding the status and legitimacy of aboriginals in the nursing sector. In addition, the discussion also tends to p rovide relevance suggestive actions that could

Critical Thinking - Model 3 - SLP - Deductive and Inductive Argumens Coursework

Critical Thinking - Model 3 - SLP - Deductive and Inductive Argumens - Coursework Example 172). As such, a premise must be able to support it conclusion for it to be ascertained to be deductive. Additionally, the truth and acceptability of the conclusion depends on the premise for any deductive argument to be valid. On the other hand, inductive argument is an inferential claim of probability that detaches conclusion to the premise. In essence, the truth or logical flow of the conclusion is totally independent of the premise (Lavery & Hughes, 2008, p. 172). Therefore, a premise can be true or acceptable but do not play any role in defining the truth and acceptability of the conclusion. In my view, deductive arguments have a direct and dependent conclusion on the premise. The truth and acceptability of the latter, therefore, depend of the premise. subsequently, the logical flow in inductive argument has no connection or certainty of conclusion with regards to premise. In conclusion, the difference between inductive and deductive arguments lies on the ability of the premise to succinctly explain its conclusion. Furthermore, the difference also prevails through acceptability and

Social Media as marketing, social and entertainment tool Research Paper

Social Media as marketing, social and entertainment tool - Research Paper Example A classic example is the use of Social Media by current United Sates President to reach millions of young voters (Kanter 28).A more recent even though grotesque example of Social Media power has been its use by Islamic radicals in the Middle East to post the beheading of people on social media. The act is ugly but the effect is instant and compelling. Non Profit organizations and their communities exist in the same environment that profit making one’s and politics do. The dilemma is should non profit organizations whose interest is not necessarily profit go the same way. Beth Kanter in her book The Networked Non Profit answers this question. Overcoming Fears The skepticism and concern of Help Worldwide Board and Staff members is quite understandable. However we will soon find out that the advantages of joining Social Media far outweigh the disadvantages. Social Media help to build social capital cheaply (Kanter 34) and keeping in touch with the Social Culture is vital. An example is given of the American Red Cross which lost touch with the public during Hurricane Katrina because it failed to hear criticism about it’s failure to respond quickly since it did not have the capacity to listen (Kanter 41).The organization reacted by creating a Social Media policy that was open and candid thereby embracing a new Social Culture. This signified a Culture shift (Kanter 56) that is required of all non profit organizations since Social media enables organizations to listen to millions in an easy way (Kanter 61). The saying goes that if we don’t change, change will change us.We cannot talk about change without mentioning generational change.

Federalists vs Democrats 18th Century Essay Example for Free

Federalists vs Democrats 18th Century Essay Throughout the 1790s the birth of American political parties emerged. Many of Americas founding fathers hated the idea of political parties because they represented political parties came about because of the difference in opinions among the population. The newborn constitution brought about issues such as north and south, rich and poor, and agriculture vs. industries that would revolutionize the way people in America thought, and their beliefs, thus giving birth to political parties. The political parties were divided as follows. There was Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist, and his followers who believed in a strong central government that would support their interests in commerce and industry. Amongst the Federalists supporters were some of the most influential men of the time, including: George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and John Jay. These men had great opposition to the constitution and wrote about them in their Federalist Papers and were read all across the nation. The Federalists wanted to solve the issues of the nation themselves. Thomas Jefferson was categorized as a Democratic-Republican. The Republicans believed in a decentralized agrarian republic in which federal government had limited powers. The two parties struggled against each other heavily in the beginning. After the ratification of Jays Treaty in 1794, providing a somewhat sugar-coated commercial relationship, awoke differing opinions between the Federalists and the Republicans. In one corner stood John Adams, federalist, supporting the ratification of Jays Treaty because it avoided war and continued trade. On the other side there was Jefferson, Democratic-Republican, who believed the treaty left doors open for the British to continue abuses of power such as impressment. For a long time, opposing political parties consumed what was the media of the era and created an opinion among the people. Although with its great efforts and philosophers, the Federalist party soon seized to exist, and for years the Democratic-Republicans regulated what is the United States.

The microstructure of cast iron

The microstructure of cast iron ABSTRACT THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRON: In the experiment, the microstructures of five samples of different cast iron forms were observed and investigated under the optical microscope and an iron-carbide phase was studied. The suitable drawings were made under different magnification of 100 and 200. Each constituent of the microstructure was identified and also other structural features of the sample provided were identified. The samples areBlackheart malleable cast iron, Ferritic spheroidal graphite iron, Pearlitic spheroidal graphite iron, White cast iron and Phosphoric grey cast iron. The differences in the microstructure were due to the difference in heat treatment, process of cooling and additives present. COPPER SILVER EUTECTIC ALLOY: The eutectic alloy formed between silver and copper was observed. The microstructure of all the four samples was drawn using the optical microscope with 200 magnifications. 90%Ag 10% Cu, 72%Ag 28% Cu, 50% Ag 50% Cu, 30% Ag 70% Cu are the samples provided. An equilibrium diagram was constructed for the copper-silver alloy system, the features of interest as well as the constituent of the structure was identified for all the samples. INTRODUCTION THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRON Cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with a carbon content of between 2.0 4.5%; they contain sufficient carbon so that the eutectic reaction occurs during solidification. They are the most economical in terms of foundry cost which makes the useful even though they are quite brittle; they are fine for low stressed components like cylinder block. Their versatility makes them a high demand in the market. Cast iron contain contrasting amount of manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. They have varying strength and can resist wear and abrasion and corrosion and they can be easily machined. They are easily melted and cast making the good casting impression. The carbon in a cast iron exists in two forms, as a free form of graphite or in a combination as a cementite which is unstable iron carbide. Iron is hard and difficult to machine due to how brittle the cementite is while graphite is soft making the iron softer and easy to machine. Graphite weakens metal due to its occurrence in flakes by breaking up its continuity. Because of the characteristics of these two carbon form, the relative amount, the shape and distribution in the cast iron produces different cast irons variety of properties. Grey cast iron contains tiny interconnected flakes of graphite that allow low strength and ductility. Its the mostly used cast iron and named after its grey colour on fracture surfaces. White cast iron produces more cementite than graphite during solidification, it is a hard brittle alloy containing massive amount of fe3c. Alloyed white cast iron is used due to their hardness and wear resistance for abrasive wear. The name was given due to white fractured surface. Malleable cast iron is formed by the heat treatment of white cast iron, it has better ductility and they produce rounded clumps of graphite. It is very machinable and is made by heat treating unalloyed 3% carbon. A spherodite are micro constituent of coarse spheroidal graphite particles in a matrix of pearlite or ferrite, permitting excellent machining characteristics in high carbon steel. The structure of cast iron is affected by a number of factors. The type of iron form is determined by the rate of solidification as slow cooling will produce grey iron and the rapid one will produce white iron structure. Whether graphite or cementite is formed and by what quantity is determined by the carbon content of the melt and presence of other element. For example nickel and silicon promote the formation of graphite in the iron structure. The structure is affected by the type of heat treatment, cementite will decompose to ferrite and graphite will produce a completely different structure. COPPER-SILVER EUTECTIC ALLOYS: There are three single phase regions on the phase diagram of binary alloys of silver and copper. The phase is a solid solution rich in copper which has silver as the solute and an FCC structure it also include pure copper and is considered to include pure copper. An eutectic region can be defined as a three phase invariant reaction in which one liquid phase solidifies to form two solid phases. Copper and silver form an eutectic at 72%Ag and 28%Cu at a temperature of 780oC.The temperature at which an alloy become totally liquid decreases as silver is added to copper which is also the same as the addition of copper to silver. A microstructure may be defined as the structural feature of an alloy, its grain and phase structure that are subject to observation under microscope. Copper is a face centred cubic structured metal possessing good ductility, good thermal and electrical conductivity. It is often used as a constituent of various metal alloys. The melting point of pure copper is 1083oC while that of pure silver is 961oC. Silver possesses one of the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal. It has FCC structure and is sometimes produced as a by-product of copper. When the full liquid solubility is possible with complete solid insolubility or very limited solid solubility then an eutectic relationship exist. This exists in copper and silver but they are fully soluble in liquid state. EXPERIMENTAL THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRON Five prepared micro specimens were provided and the microstructure of each studied and drawn using a microscope. The specimens provided were Blackheart malleable cast iron at magnification 100 Ferritic spheroidal graphite iron at magnification 100 Pearlitic spheroidal graphite iron at magnification 200 White cast iron at magnification 100 Phosphoric grey cast iron at magnification 200 Each constituent and other structural feature of importance in the microstructure of white cast iron was labelled on the drawing. The procedure was performed to all specimens. COPPER-SILVER EUTECTIC ALLOYS Four polished and etched micro sections of copper silver alloys were provided. 30% Ag 70% Cu 72%Ag 28% Cu 50% Ag 50% Cu 90%Ag 10% Cu These alloys have already been melted in a gas fired furnace, deoxidised by polling with graphite rod and then cast in refractory moulds preheated to 500oC. I placed the samples under the microscope at a magnification of 200; my observation was drawn with the help of the microscope. The constituent and structural features are drawn and labelled, I repeated the steps for the entire specimen and the equilibrium diagram was drawn from the data. RESULTS The results are compiled in the couple of pages attached to the next pages. DISCUSSION THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRON The way a metal is cooled produces the different structures of cast iron. Two of these structures are white and grey cast iron. As the metal is cooled, the amount of austenite in the matrix increases. At the eutectic temperature of 1130Â °C the remaining liquid solidifies producing austenite in a eutectic matrix. A structure consisting of cementite, Fe3C and eutectoid iron starts to form as structure starts to decompose. The eutectoid contains area of pearlite and cementite and its also a mixture of cementite and ferrite. The pearlite is formed as a result of the decomposition of the austenite on cooling. This structure is that of white cast iron which is formed due to the rapid rate of cooling. The cooling rate of white and grey cast iron affects the structure; fast cooling rate promotes white cast iron while slower cooling rate promotes grey cast iron. The carbide composition can have effect on the structure of the iron produced; high amount of chromium promotes white cast iron while low amount promotes grey cast iron. Section size can also determine iron structure obtained. Cool section cool faster and produce white cast iron while thick sections will cool slower promoting formation of grey cats iron. A number of variables must be controlled in order to produce grey cast iron instead of white cast iron. For a grey cast iron to form, the rate of cooling must be made as slow as possible. High silicon content will also promote the formation of grey cast iron as silicon has strong graphitising tendencies. Phosphoric grey iron is stronger, has a lower melting point and better fluidity than normal grey cast iron. The Blackheart malleablising process is the packing of white iron castings into pots with a neutral packing, such as sand or crushed slag, and heating them to 900Â °C for three days. After the three days they are cooled very slowly. The cementite in the white iron is being decomposed into ferrite and graphite is being precipitated in a smoothly dispersed form. The structure is composed entirely of ferrite and graphite. The graphite present in the structure is shown as ‘rosettes of carbon in the ferrite. After the process, the small amount of pearlite left has no effect on the properties of the casting. The steel produced in this process has good wear resistance and strength and reasonable toughness. Additives are used to produce spheroidal graphite iron rather than flake graphite iron. Magnesium amounting to 1-2% of the weight of the iron is added in the form of a nickel magnesium alloy of 10-20% magnesium. The alloy is used to prevent an extremely violent reaction from occurring. The presence of silicon also assists the formation of the nodules therefore Ferro-silicon is added. The sulphur level needs to be kept low in order to avoid removing the Mg as sulphide. In the production of a ferritic graphite iron, spheroids of graphite in pearlite matrix are heat treated to form spheroids of graphite in ferrite matrix. This is time dependent process and doesnt go into completion therefore causing pearlite area to still be seen. COPPER-SILVER EUTECTIC ALLOYS On drawing of the 30%Ag70%Cu, alpha particles can be seen and dark patches show primary dendrites outside eutectic. The 50%Ag50%Cu alloy sample also shows primary alpha dendrites outside eutectics. In the 90%Ag10%Cu sample there is small amount of eutectic and light areas show beta particles while the dark areas show alpha particle. On the equilibrium diagram ADB is the liquidus and ACDEB is the solidus. The area ACF represents the alpha phase of the silver in copper while BEG represent the condition of limited solid solution of copper in silver which is the beta phase. Below FCDEG the two phases alpha and beta exist side by side. The 72%Ag28%Cu micro section has an all eutectic composition with dark areas also representing alpha particles and light areas showing beta particles the centre of the microstructure is the first to solidify then the outside area. Composition of solid and liquid phases will vary with the temperature along the solidus and liquidus lines. The final liquid between composition C and E will always end at eutectic regardless of what the initial composition may be. As a result the solid will be composed of masses of A and B. At eutectic CW parts liquidus composition Y while WY parts composition C. During casting its virtually impossible to achieve equilibrium conditions. Coring is the non equilibrium cooling on microstructures. Coring explains how the varying primary dendrites allow lighter areas in the centre than in the outside. The properties of a cored structure are less than optimal, as a casting having a cored structure is reheated causing grain boundaries regions will meet first as long as they are richer in low melting components. The liquid film that separate the grain gives an outcome of sudden loss of mechanical integrity. The melting may begin at a temperature below the equilibrium solidus temperature of the alloys. Homogeneous heat treatment can be used to remove coring at a temperature below the solidus point of the alloy composition. During the process, atomic diffusion occur producing compositionally homogeneous grain. CONCLUSION Cast irons have many different structures each one caused by a different cooling rate, additives and different heat treatments. Formation of grey cast iron over white cast iron is promote by slow cooling rate and enormous silicon content Coring can be eliminated by a homogenising heat treatment. Magnesium and silicon help to produce spheroidal graphite iron rather than flake graphite iron To produce a ferritic spheroidal graphite iron from pearlitic spheroidal graphite iron the steel must be heated to just below the lower critical temperature. Phosphoric iron will enable to cast very fine details and in blackheart malleablising process, rosettes from graphite in ferrite matrix are produced from white cast iron. The composition of the copper silver eutectic alloys has a very large effect on the microstructure of the alloy, with different amounts of the phases being produced on cooling.

How does Shakespeare portray the nature :: essays research papers

How does Shakespeare portray the nature of love in â€Å"A Midsummer Nights Dream†?‘A Mid-summer Nights Dream’ is evidentially concerned with the series of hindrances in the course of true love. Shakespeare reverses the categories of reality and illusion, portraying to the audience with a comic edge that when overcome with the illusion of love couples become blind to the misfortunes that are bound to cross their path. The most basic part of Shakespeare’s plays is the relationship between men and women. In a society so closely woven with Christianity, it seemed natural to take the mandate for this relationship from the bible. This names the husband the head of the household; he can govern his family as he pleases. Despite the pervading view in Elizabethan England of women as the property of their fathers. Shakespeare’s form does not take a firm stance on how he thinks marriage should work. Marriage was considered as a way to establish order most of Shakespeare’s plays have to do with the making or breaking of family ties. The Characters are drawn from three different worlds: the Athenian Gentry, the Craftsmen of Athens, and the Fairy World. The protagonist is the bizarre nature of love, as represented by four couples: Hermia and Lysander, Helena and Demetrius, Titania and Oberon, and Hippolyta and Theseus. The whole play centers on the central idea of lovers, ironically and comically coming together and being free to marry. The opening exposition is first set in Medieval Athens; Shakespeare uses familiar figures from Greek mythology, which would be seen as autocratic and mature mirroring the future portrayal of their love. Theseus as the male is dominant over Hippolyta; her submission brings forth the imminent wedding. Because they meet in an adverse environment it creates dramatic and passionate tension, which is later resolved. This is in stark contrasts with the young lovers, who are erratic and indecisive. ‘Hippolyta, I wooed thee with my sword; And won thy love doing thee injuries; But I will wed thee in another key, With pomp, with triumph, and with reveling.’ (Theseus 1:1 lines 16-19) Oberon and Titania are noble fairies. Although they have high status, fairies were seen to be avid and passionate. This passion causes human-like, vindictive quarrels between them. ‘†¦I have forsworn his bed and company;’ (Titania 2:1 lines 61-62) Oberon plays tricks on Titania to prove his authority over her, but the sight of her humiliation arouses his love and they reinstate their love to one another.

Horses as My Pen :: Invention Writing Technology Papers

Horses as My Pen When I was told that I had to develop a form of writing using solely nature, my initial reaction was a groan. Despite the fact that nature is abundant where I live--on a farm--is was the middle of winter and my creativity was definitely limited. Additionally, I actually felt lost that I couldn’t use a writing utensil, Dennis Baron was definitely right when he wrote, "We have a way of getting so used to technologies that we come to think of them as natural rather than technological. We assume that pencils are a natural way to write because they are old" (51). Then it hit me, my family has been involved with the use/production/processing of fibers for generations. So my initial idea for this project was to utilize natural wool and dyes or needlepoint of some fashion to create kind of text naturally. As I began formulating more specific ideas for that avenue, I realized that it would be very time consuming and I was unsure of the exact outcome. With sheep in mind, the thought of other barnyard friends danced in my head. I opted to utilize my equines, family and friends. The plan was to align the horses to spell out Hi, although, my first idea was to spell out some random quote, I did not have enough horses to write anything longer than a single word. Just as Twain noted, "Dictating...to a type writer is a new experience for me, writing with horses was new to me" (501). Because I had to take into account my horses’ temperaments, it took some deliberation about who will cooperate next to who and who should be handled by who. At last, a balance was struck and arrangements made to meet on what happened to be a very frigid day. Six of my very dependable helpers showed up and the horses were groomed, we walked them to a field, overlooked by a Harvester Silo. My dad scaled the silo to get an aerial view and we lined up four horses, one pony, two miniature horses and my dog Riley into the Hi formation. Unfortunately, because the weather was brisk, to say the least, the equines were feeling a bit frisky and were not so keen on standing still. This made the process last about 20 minutes, twice as long as I anticipated. Additionally, my mom, who is not a horse person at all, was holding the two mini’s as the i and Riley was antagonizing them, which made the experience slightly stressful since nobody wants to chase down loose horses!

Lucent Technologies :: essays research papers fc

Lucent Technologies BACKGROUND   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1996, AT&T decided to split into three different companies. These new companies were the new AT&T, NCR, and Lucent Technologies. Lucent Technologies is one of the leading designers, developers, and manufacturers of telecommunications systems, software, and products.1 They are beginning to emerge as a Fortune 40 company. Lucent Technologies builds local networks, business telephone systems, and consumer telephones that access the global networks.2 Lucent Technologies was launched with an initial public stock offering in April.3 AT&T owns an 82% share of the company.4 KEY PERSONNEL   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lucent technologies has 125,000 employees worldwide. Approximately 82% of its employees come from the United States and the other 18% come from foreign countries.5 Lucent Technologies has offices in more than 90 countries, and Bell Labs has offices in 13 countries.6   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The chairman and chief executive officer is Henry B. Schacht. Schacht has been on AT&T's board of directors since 1981. He has also held chairman and chief executive officer positions at Cummings Engine Company, INC.7   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lucent Technologies' President and chief operating officer is Richard A. McGinn. McGinn joined AT&T in 1978. He has previously served as executive vice president and chief executive officer of AT&T's network group. From 1994 to 1996, McGinn served on the AT&T management executive committee.8 BUSINESS STRUCTURE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lucent Technologies is composed of four operating units. These four units are: Business Communication Systems, Consumer Products, Microelectronics Group, and Network Systems. These units are designed to work together to provide innovative and cost-efficient solutions for customers. Bell Laboratories supports each group.9   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bell Laboratories is a research and development organization that is recognized throughout the world for its achievements in science and technology. Currently, Bell Laboratories is focusing on developing: Digital signal processor algorithms, Lightwave communications (photonics), Networking, Silicon chips, Software, and Wireless communications.10   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Business Communications Systems design, manufacture, install, and service advanced voice and multimedia systems worldwide.11 Consumer Products design, manufacture, sell, and lease communications products for consumers, small offices, and home offices. In 1995 in the United States, Consumer Products sold 31% of the corded phones, 28% of the cordless phones, and 35% of answering machines.12 The Microelectronics Group makes integrated circuits, power systems, and optoelectronic components for Lucent Technologies.13 The largest unit of Lucent Technologies is the Network Systems. The Network Systems designs, develops, and manufactures networking systems and software for telecommunications providers, wireless communications is growing at an annual rate of 33 percent.14 BUSINESS STRATEGY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The worldwide demand for communications systems is booming. Lucent Technologies is predicting a 10% annual growth for the communications industry. The business is pursuing growth opportunities around the world and is trying to build on Bell Laboratories established global relationships with its key customers. 15   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Much emphasis for advancement is being put on the areas of Wireless

Reward Strategy: Reasons and Perspectives Essay

Modern business environment is famous for various new trends. An environment where the businesses used to hire employees for the sake of monetary benefits only is now changed in multi dimensional and multi pronged environment. Now business are not run for the sake of money and short term financial benefits only but for a long time sustainable growth and development. Now the only focus of all business is customer  and Customer Satisfaction. This Customer Satisfaction (CS) cannot be achieved without proper involvement of internal customers i. e. , employees. Companies start their business philosophy from their main goals or objectives and make clear statements showing their mission and values. All lateral developments are performed on the basis of these predetermined values. Modern businesses focus only on customer satisfaction and this is the core concept of business as well. Who is Responsible for Customer Satisfaction? Now question is the responsibility of achieving customer satisfaction without any failure. Many plans are made for wining customer satisfaction, but all would be failure if company is not sure about the persons, method and tactics of achieving customer satisfaction. Whole management and its team is responsible for achieving business results so is the customer satisfaction. Modern management has no doubt in it that customer satisfaction can only be achieved if all employees regardless their departments work hard to satisfy customer. Conclusion is all employees are responsible for achieving and maintaining customer satisfaction on long term basis. How would Employees work for Achieving Customer Satisfaction? Employees are important for achieving customer satisfaction then the responsibility comes how these employees should work for achieving high standards of customer satisfaction? It’s an open secret that employees mainly intend to work for the physical work giving to them according to their job description. Though companies make different efforts to ensure quantitative and qualitative efforts to ensure performance of employees but there is not specific way to know how do employees behave and work for achieving customer satisfaction. As per Hertz Berg’s two factor motivation theory, people treat salary and working environment as routine requirement of their jobs and don’t fee motivated on the basis of nominal salaries. For doing something extra, they need motivation and for motivation they need to be given something extra by the employer. To overcome problems and obstacles on their way to customer satisfaction, companies design a special approach to involve employees into their challenging task of customer satisfaction. Reward Strategy Why do people work is the question often answered differently by all respondents. Few people surely confirm the cause of their work, mostly are trapped in wordy reasons like, just to make my life comfortable, to earn my livelihood, to support my family, to spend my spare time or to establish myself. Business psychologists still fail to understand the only common reason among people who work at different places. Similar to the concepts of employees, business researchers and scholars are also divided on certain human needs and employees’ concern bout growth. But all researchers and business psychologists are of the opinion that rewards really award. If you give rewards to your employees reward, they will award business with better results. Various rewards to employees make different behavioural and motivational changes in their personalities. Almost modern business and non-business organizations believe in good reward system that would base on financial compensation or Remuneration, certain benefits regardless their job hierarchy and business status, and perquisites of different types based on hierarchy. These three factors make the most successful blend of modern reward package. As such package is a motivating blend of financial and non-financial benefits, this suites majority of people.

Collapse of the Ussr

Stephen Wears Assess the mall factors of the break-up of the soviet Union The break up and dissolution of the soviet union on the 25th December 1991 heralded the end of the Cold War. It ushered In what had been termed ‘the new world order', furthermore, it was suggested by Francis Fauvism to have signaled the end of history and the battle of ideas which had dominated much of the twentieth century (Huntington, 1996; 31). The ‘clash of civilizations' had already seen the demise of fascism as a credible force in 1945, the close of 1991 would see the end of communism in Europe.The relatively sudden collapse of the USSR has compelled winkers and analysts to seek answers as to why the world's second superpower could collapse so quickly and so utterly. Can it be attributed to one single catastrophic event, or is it far more appropriate to place blame on a number of contributing factors? The controversy surrounding the collapse of the USSR has been compared to the collapse of the Roman Empire among others and will also continue to be interpreted and reinterpreted for many years to come (Liqueur 1993; 387).This essay will look at some of the factors which lead to dissolution and assess the importance of each. The key issues that this essay will assess include the problem of he nationalities, the Geographer factor, economic problems, and the social and political upheavals caused by Perestroika and Glasnost. The Geographer factor must be viewed In the context of state of the country he Inherited from his predecessors coupled with the effects of Glasnost and Perestroika. It has been suggested that Glasnost and Perestroika played key roles in hastening the collapse of the world's second superpower.Glasnost (meaning openness) allowed people to see the flaws In the system and questions were raised as to whether or not communism had been good for Russia. Perestroika (meaning restructuring) also highlighted flaws in the lattice and bureaucratic system that could not be given a quick fix. The economic problems of the USSR have also been cited as a considerable factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The command economy had stifled Innovation and its existence outside of the world economy had caused major problems. Further to this the USSR could not keep up with the military spending of the USA during the 1 sass.Competing against the military spending of the Reagan Administration as well as fighting a protracted war against the Munched in Afghanistan had all but exhausted the economy of the USSR. The nationalities provided a great problem for any ideas of national unity. It has been argued by Lord William Wallace that it would be very difficult for the European union evolve into a unified state because there is a lack of identity and little sense to shared history across the continent (Smith, 2005). This is the same problem facing attempts by soviet leaders to foster a single soviet nationality.The very same Issue had been faced by the Ts arist system before It. One of the few things the nationalities had in common was the centuries of Russian domination. Sitting on what 75 years before had been the Tsarist Russian Empire, the Soviet union faced same problem as had the Tsarist regime, namely the Incredibly republics of the USSR, was made up of many smaller semi-autonomous republics. Russians formed the biggest ethnic group at Just over 50%, followed by the Ukrainians with 15% of the total population. Other nationalities included Zebu; Biliousness; Khaki and Volta Attar among many others.The downfall of the Soviet Union gave an opportunity for peoples across the vast territory from Kampuchea to the Kola Peninsula to glamour for recognition (Dukes, 1998; 332). This suggests that the problem of the nationalities would continue to e a headache for the newly formed Russian Federation. The rise of nationalism added to the troubles faced by the Kremlin during the sass. The growth of the Transactions and Baltic Popular Front s had brought the problem of the nationalities to the fore when in 1989 the Red Army entered Tidbits to assist the Georgian authorities in putting down a rally.Soviet troops were also used to prop up the communist government of Azerbaijan under threat from nationalist forces (Chubbier, 2001; 195). The Baltic States did not Join the chorus of statements of sovereignty which had come from Astrakhan and Ukraine, this was because they regarded their incorporation into the USSR as an illegal act. They challenged the legality of the Molotov – Robertson pact of 1939 and achieved international support in the form of the American refusal to recognize the annexation of the region (Strayed, 1998; 152-153).The policy of Perestroika can be seen as the catalyst for the increase in nationalism as the planned restructuring of the USSR exposed fundamental flaws in the Soviet system. The policy of Glasnost also exposed corruption within the Caucasian and Central Asian republics, Geographer res ponded by replacing the Khaki Communist Party leader Sunken with a Russian. This caused a great deal of rioting in Almost (Strayed, 1998; 150-151). Further to the rise of popular front movements within the constituent republics, the Soviet Union was also facing a crisis with its East European satellites due in part to the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika.Glasnost and Perestroika are often cited as the most important factors in speeding the demise of the Soviet Union. Eric Hobbies claims that the only thing that made the soviet system work was the command structure of the party and the state which had been inherited from the days of Stalin (1995; 480). Once again it mimed that reform from the top was going to introduce fundamental change which was to be ultimately uncontrollable. Hobbies also suggests that ‘glasnost amounted to the disintegration of authority' and ‘perestroika amounted to the destruction of the old mechanisms which made the economy work' (1995; 483).P erestroika had to an extent legalized dissent, and groups in cities across the USSR began forming larger political groups known as ‘clubs of socially active citizens' (Chubbier, 2001; 190). This radical departure from the Soviet norm of suppressing membership of political parties other than the Communist Party was acclimated by the decision to stop arrests on the grounds of political activity. The release of political prisoners saw the growth of new organizations outside of the Soviet system, however by 1988 this opposition numbered Just a few thousand (Chubbier, 2001; 191).Glasnost played a major part in the unraveling of the Soviet Union. It brought forward into stark light the myriad of social problems which had 320-321). Part of glasnost and perestroika involved the relaxing of censorship of the press and other media. It was clear to Geographer that hard line censorship was a utile exercise given the increasing public access to western broadcasts, particularly in the after math of the Coherency disaster of 1986 (Acton, 1995; 320). It was recognized that reform of the economy and wider society could not happen under the current level of state censorship.Not even Lenin escaped criticism under glasnost, it was claimed that the October revolution had been an unmitigated disaster for Russia, leading the nation on a long road to nowhere (Acton, 1995; 323). Geographer and his policies of glasnost and perestroika soon faced serious problems with regards to implementation of the reforms. It seemed that Geographer was trying to do the impossible by marrying completely opposing concepts, ‘socialism with capitalism, totalitarianism with democracy'(Chubbier, 2001; 194). This was also known as the Geographer Factor.The Geographer Factor stems from the problem of the Soviet Union being too reliant on the top figure in government (Chubbier, 2001; 194). It was almost impossible to override the powers held by Geographer, even if it did mean following his lead to the destruction of the USSR. It can be argued that this same problem led to economic stagnation under Brethren and the less than successful schemes of Khrushchev. Regional fragmentation and the erosion of the USSR as a ‘political and economic empire' pushed the republics further towards secession, the communist parties in the Baltic States split from the main communist party of the Soviet Union (CUPS).This caused a wave of similar actions in other constituent republics and served to hasten the disintegration of the country. The process of demonstration initiated by Geographer set the Soviet Union on the course to oblivion for it allowed the republics to elect popular governments and vote to secede from the union via referendum. This most significant of these was the referendum held by Ukraine the results of which indicated the will of the people to leave the union. However this is at odds with the referendum set down by Geographer regarding the retention and reform of the USSR , which received overwhelming popular support.Nevertheless the simple fact that the largest republic in the USSR other than Russia had voted to leave the union could only have a catastrophic effect on the future of the country as a whole. Geographer had no choice but to accept these events, as there could be no return to Stalinist era of brutal suppression such as that en during the Hungarian Uprising in 1956. Geographer faced opposition to the introduction of restructuring and openness to the soviet system. The opposition came to a head in August of 1991, the central state bureaucracy made an attempt at regaining political control of the country (Chubbier, 2001; 193).A coup d'Â ©tat was launched in an attempt to reassert conservative values to the Soviet system. Geographer was put under house arrest in Crimea while attempts were made at reversing the damage done by perestroika. This however received no popular support from the public, prompting Boris Yielding to act to put a stop to the coup. Yielding, President of the Russian SF led a three day resistance movement which involved barricades being set up in central Moscow and around the ‘White House' to prevent the plotters from assuming power (Chubbier, 2001; 193).This proved to be Geographer's power almost completely eroded, a secret meeting of the leaders of the three main Slavic states declared that the USSR officially ceased to exist. Without a country to lead Geographer tendered his resignation on 25th December 1991. All but five signatures were present on the declaration of the end of the USSR. The Baltic tastes had long maintained their annexation was illegal, Georgia would sign later. The other noticeable absence was that of Mikhail Geographer (Chubbier, 2001 ; 194-195).This essay has given an assessment of the events leading to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Although it cannot be said with any great certainty that any one factor was more influential than another, it must be noted that Gl asnost and Perestroika have not been too far away from any of the issues discussed here. The two flagship policies of Geographer had been intended to complement each other, in reality they had the opposite effect. Attempting to Join opposing concepts was a futile exercise which no doubt hastened the demise of the Soviet superpower.The problems faced by the Soviet government ran much deeper than appeared to the Soviet public. Years of economic stagnation and bureaucratic strangulation had left the Soviet Union a spent force by the late sass. Robert Strayed suggests that ‘tinkering with its fragile structures would send it [the USSR] spinning into oblivion' (1998; 88). One can't avoid this harrowing assessment being very similar to the assertion made by Doll Hitler shortly before launching Operation Barbarous, hat ‘one has only to kick in the door, and the whole rotten edifice will come crashing down'.Of course this was a statement of propaganda and should be viewed with t hat in mind. Ultimately the Soviet Union was broken by a series of intertwining events, both long term and short term, some more important than others but each playing a crucial role. Just as the USSR was established on the ruins of the Tsarist Empire, the newly formed Russian Federation is established on the ruins of the USSR, marked by the raising of the Russian Atrocious, watched by a small group of pro-communist supporters. List of References

Managing Employee Motivation and Performance

INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT MANAGING EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE RESEARCH PAPER by Nedzad ISAKOVIC Project Supervisor M. A. Edin SMAJIC SARAJEVO April, 2012 Contents 1. Introduction2 1. 1. The Motivation Process2 1. 2. Wath Managers Do In Practice2 2. Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting3 2. 1. Job Design3 2. 2. Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement3 2. 3. The Job Characteristics Model4 3. Conclusion5 4. References7 1. Introduction Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst, reading a book to gain knowledge or performing some specific job assignment to get pay. Why is the motivation of employees so important at the workplace? It is important for managers because it determines individual performance of the workers along with ability of the workers and work environment . The most challenging factor for manager to control of these three is motivation. Individual behavior is a complex phenomenon, and the manager needs to enter the core of the problem if he is going to solve it. 1. 1. The Motivation ProcessThe motivation process progresses through a series of discrete steps. Content, process, and reinforcement perspectives on motivation address different parts of this process (Griffin, 2008). Content perspective tries to find what factor or factors motivate people. The most popular content theories are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the ERG theory and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Process perspectives on motivation explore how the motivation process works and how it occurs. They try to find out why people certain behavior options to fulfill their needs and how workers evaluate their satisfactions after their decisions.Theories of process perspectives are expectancy theory, equity theory and the newer attribution theory. The reinforcement perspective tries to find out which factors force employees to continue being motivated. It tells us that employees will repeat the behavior for which they are rewarded, and they won’t repeat behavior for which they are punished. Reinforcement perspective uses positive reinforcement, avoidance, punishment and extinction as tools to keep employees motivated. These are just theories which help managers to determine what to do in practice. 1. 2.What Managers Do In Practice The most shared thought and strategy among managers in practice is that money motivates. Because of that managers use large variety of reward systems such as merit reward systems, incentive reward systems and team reward systems to improve motivation and performance of their employees. Their assumption is correct and employees do actually perform better when they know that they will receive more money for their improved performance. But another question arises: How long will the improved performance last if mo ney is key motivator?The answer is that it won’t last long. The studies have shown that individuals have difficulty recalling the bonus they receive and it does not seem to have the same impact it did within the first few weeks or months of receiving it. That's because money, in and of itself, will not continuously motivate individuals. Employees are motivated much more if money rewards are combined with recognition and with improved job design. Another problem that arises from using the money as a key factor of motivation is that it costs.The companies need to give large amounts of money to employees as bonuses and there were several cases where bonuses are actually larger than annual salaries of some employees. This becomes a real problem if company wants to decrease the amount of bonuses employees receive. Employees become more dissatisfied and unmotivated because they are used to have large bonuses, so their performance falls quite a lot. My opinion is that the best way t o motivate employees to perform better is to design jobs by making them more appealing to people. 1. Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting 2. 3. Job DesignThis approach of motivation is directed at improving the essential nature of the work performed by changing the design of the job. Job design is concerned with structuring jobs in order to improve organization efficiency and employee job satisfaction (Snell/Bohlander, 2007). Employees today engage in repetitive movements, which they find highly routine and monotonous. Not surprisingly, people became bored with such jobs and their performance falls with time. Fortunately, today’s organizational scientists have found several ways of designing jobs that aren’t just efficient, but are also pleasant and motivating.Job enlargement and job enrichment are two approaches that improve motivation by changing job design. 2. 4. Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment One of the first modern approaches to redesigning jobs suggested that boredom of employees by engaging in highly repetitive jobs could be minimized by having people perform an increased number of different tasks all at the same level. This approach is known as job enlargement (Greenberg/Baron, 2008). Because of this approach employees don’t need higher skills or have higher responsibility, but perform more different actions at the same level.Changing job in this way is an increase in the horizontal job loading. Several studies showed that job enlargement is very useful way to increase employee job satisfaction and employee boredom at the workplace. A more effective approach, job enrichment, gives employees not only more jobs to do, but more tasks to perform at a higher level of skill and responsibility (Greenberg/Baron, 2008). The main idea of job enrichment is making jobs more interesting to people so that they will be more highly motivated to perform them.Job enrichment gives employees the opportunity to take greater contr ol over how to do their jobs. Because people performing enriched jobs work at higher levels than others, this approach increases a job’s vertical job loading. Even the job enrichment is successful it has some problems in implementation. First one is difficulty of implementation because it is expensive to redesign existing facilities. Second problem is lack of employee acceptance because not all employees are ready to accept the changes in their job accomplishment and higher obligations for the work they perform. 2. 5. The Job Characteristics ModelIn previous text I stated that employers should enrich the jobs, but I failed to specify precise what elements of a job need to be enriched for it to be effective. Job characteristics model answers this question. It assumes that jobs can be designed so as to help people get enjoyment out of their jobs and care about the work they do (Greenberg/Baron, 2008). It tells us how jobs can be redesigned to help employees feel that they are d oing meaningful and valuable work. The model specifies that enriching certain elements of jobs influences employee’s psychological states in a manner that increases their work effectiveness.It identifies five core job dimensions that help create three critical psychological states, leading to several beneficial personal and work outcomes. The five critical job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Skill variety shows us how many different tasks the employee performs using several of his skills and talents. Task identity shows us how much is employee involved in one piece of work, from beginning to end. Task significance shows us how much impact employee’s work has on others.Autonomy shows us how much freedom employees have in planning and performing jobs as they wish. Feedback shows us how much the job allows employees to know is their performance efficient enough. The model tells that these various job dimensions have important effects on many critical psychological states. Combination of these job dimensions have effect on experienced meaningfulness of the job performed, which is then experienced as highly important, valuable and worthwhile. Job dimensions also determine how much employees are personally responsible and accountable for their work.When they are free to decide what to do and how to do it they feel more responsible for their work. Finally, these job dimensions impact employee’s knowledge of the results of their work. When a job is designed to provide employees with information about the effects of their actions, they better understand how effective they are – and such knowledge improves their effectiveness. These critical psychological states affect personal and work outcomes such as: feelings of motivation, the quality of work performed, satisfaction with work, absenteeism and turnover.The higher these psychological states are, the more positive the personal and work benefits and outcomes will be. The job characteristics model is highly applicable and it has high and positive results. The employees that respond best to this model are the ones which have high need for personal growth and development. The model has been focus of many empirical tests, most of which are supportive of many aspects of the model. One study conducted among a group of South African clerical workers found particularly strong support for the job characteristic model (Greenberg/Baron, 2008). . Conclusion In my opinion altering employee motivation by changing job design is much more productive and better than improving motivation by incentive reward systems. It is true that inducing motivation by changing job design has several problems, such as difficulty of implementation and lack of employee acceptance, but these problems are easier to overcome than problems that occur when companies use money to motivate their employees. Incentive reward systems have problems beside the incredibly high costs to organization.These systems may lead to lower job satisfaction as the employees work until they reach their limit and then they become unhappy. They can also create competition within the organization and destroy cooperation among employees. Employees cannot be treated just as machines and the money they receive for their work just isn’t enough to satisfy them. They need recognition for their work and they need to see that the work they do is meaningful and worthwhile, and this is the thing that job design allows them to have. They feel respected and fulfilled and, at the end, motivated to perform the best they know. . References Ricky W. Griffin (2008). Management (9th Edition ed. ). Houghton Mifflin Company. Jerald Greenberg ; Robert A. Baron (2008). Behavior in Organizations (9th Edition ed. ). Pearson Prentice Hall. Luis R. Gomez-Mejia ; David B. Balkin ; Robert L. Cardy (2007). Managing Human Resources (5th Edition ed. ). Pearson Prentice Hall . Scott Snell ; George Bohlander (2007). Human Resorce Management. Thomson. http://psychology. about. com/od/mindex/g/motivation-definition. htm , http://www. entrepreneur. com/article/202352